Life Processes,Std-10

 

     
   LIFE PROCESSES -- I ( NUTRITION ) 

➤ Life Processes         
:- All basic functions performed by living organisms to survive on this earth are called life processes.
:- It includes – Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation, Excretion, Control and Coordination, Growth and Development, etc.
➤  Nutrition
:- The process of taking food inside the body and utilizing it to release energy is called nutrition.
[ Nutrients:- The substances which an organism obtains from its surroundings and uses it as a source of energy are called nutrients. E.g:- Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Roughage, and Water.
 *Modes of Nutrition
 :- On the basis of procuring food from their surroundings, there are two types of nutrition.
 a. Autotrophic  & b. Heterotrophic
#-Autotrophic Mode of Nutrition
:- A mode of nutrition in which organisms make their own food from simple inorganic materials
( like- CO2 and H2O ) with the help of chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight is called autotrophic nutrition.
:- And those organisms which can make their own food by this process are called Autotrophs.
:- E.g – Green Plants,algae, etc.
#-Heterotrophic  Mode of Nutrition
:-  A mode of nutrition in which organisms can’t make their food and depend on other organisms for their food is called heterotrophic nutrition.
:- And those organisms in which heterotrophic nutrition takes place are called Heterotrophs.
:- E.g – Animals, Humans and Non-green plants.
#-Modes of Heterotrophic Nutrition
:- There are mainly three modes of heterotrophic nutrition. A. Saprophytic Nutrition B. Parasitic Nutrition and C. Holozoic Nutrition

 *Saprophytic Nutrition
:- Derived from two Greek words – Sapro + Phyto
 , which means ' rotten ' and ' plants'.
 :- A mode of heterotrophic nutrition in which organisms derive their food from dead and decaying organic matter is called saprophytic nutrition.
:- E.g – Fungi ( like- mushrooms, bread moulds , yeast )
 And, Those organisms which get energy from dead and decaying organic matter are called saprotrophs.
*Parasitic Nutrition
:- Derived from two Greek words- Para + site, which means "other " & " grain ".
:- A mode of heterotrophic nutrition in which organisms derive/obtain their food from the body of another living organisms without killing them is called parasitic nutrition.
-> They show host and guest relationship.
-> E.g- Amoeba, Paramecium, Roundworms, Plasmodim, Ticks, Lice, Leeches, and Cuscuta plant
   ( amarbel ), etc.
And, Such kind of organisms is called Parasites.
*Holozoic Nutrition
:- Derived from - 'holos + zoic ' which means Solid food and animals respectively.
-> A mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on complex food materials is called holozoic
    nutrition.
-> E.g:- Humans, animals, and amoeba.
And, Those organisms which get or derive energy by this process are called Holozoids.
➤Steps of Holozoic nutrition
                                                1. Ingestion
                                                2. Digestion
                                                3. Absorption
                                                4. Assimilation
                                                5. Egestion .
Note:-
[ a. Ingestion:- It is a process of taking food inside the body through the mouth.
  b. Digestion:- It is a process of breaking down of complex food into its simpler form.
  c. Absorption:- It is the process of receiving digested food by the wall of the small intestine.
  d. Assimilation:- It is the process of carrying out of dissolved food to all parts of the body through blood.
  e. Egestion:- It is the process of removing undigested food from the body.  ]

❄️ Autotrophic Nutrition in Plants
 Photosynthesis
:- This word splits into two parts                         - photo + synthesize, photo means 'sunlight' and synthesize means - combine together.
:-  Green plants make their food by this process.
:-  It is a biochemical, endothermic process in which heat is utilized and carbon dioxide reduced to form carbohydrates.
:- Site of photosynthesis is chloroplast ( in Thylakoid) of
leaves of the plant that is why the leaf is considered as a photosynthetic organ or kitchen room of the plants.
:- Chlorophyll plays a crucial role in this process ( because chlorophyll is a green pigment and absorbs sunlight  ).
* Definition:- The process of making food by the plants with the help of Carbon dioxide( Co2 ) and  Water( H2O ) in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll is called photosynthesis.
:- Solar energy gets converted into chemical energy.
*Requirements for photosynthesis are as follows - Carbon dioxide, water, and minerals.
:- Plants obtain Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by the process of diffusion through tiny pores I.e stomata, which are present at the undersurface of leaves.
:- Plants obtain water and minerals from soil by roots ( through the process of  Osmosis).
               

* Reaction:-
                 

* Significances of photosynthesis:-
:- It provides food for all.
:- It is essential for sustaining life and it is the ultimate source of Oxygen, Energy.
:- It helps in the growth and development of plants.
:- It is necessary for the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic compounds.
:- It converts Carbon dioxide back to Oxygen.
* Phases of photosynthesis:-
 :-  There are mainly two phases in photosynthesis -
 1. Light phase or Light reaction and
 2. Dark phase or Dark reaction
1. Light Reaction
:- It is a photochemical phase of photosynthesis and light dependent reaction ( means it takes place in the presence of sunlight )
:- It occurs in the thylakoids of grana in the chloroplast.
Que. What happens during the light reaction?
Ans:- A couple of steps occur during light reaction.
Step - 1. Excitation of chlorophyll
:- The chlorophyll absorbs light energy in the form of photons.
:- The chlorophyll molecule gets excited and is converted to chemical energy.
Step - 2. Formation of ATP from ADP
:- In this step ATP synthesized from ADP and inorganic Phosphate.
:-  ADP + Pi + energy ⟶  ATP
:- This ATP is used during dark reaction.
 Note:- ADP - Adenosine diphosphate
              ATP - Adenosine triphosphate and
                 Pi  - Inorganic Phosphate.
Step - 3. Splitting of water
:- Photolysis of water takes place in this step.
:- H2O ⟶ 2H+ +  O2 +  2e-

  ( The free oxygen is the O2 gas given off during photosynthesis. )
Step -4. NADP reduced to NADPH
:- The released hydrogen ion ( H+ ) reduce NADP into NADPH.
:-  NADP  + 2e- + H+( ion ) ⟶ NADPH
( NADPH - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate. )
                     

  2. Dark reaction
:- It is light independent reaction I.e this reaction doesn't require light energy, but it doesn't mean that it occurs during dark only.
:- It occurs simultaneously with the light reaction.
:- it is biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis means the reduction of carbon dioxide takes place and form carbohydrate.
:- It occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
:- This reaction utilizes NADPH and ATP ( formed during the light reaction ) to form sugar i.e carbohydrate(C6H12O6 )
(Note:- More about the dark reaction you will study in Higher classes, it is till std - X only. )
💥 Difference between Light and dark reaction 👇👇

* Factors affecting Photosynthesis
:- There is a number of factors which affect photosynthesis.
1. Light intensity
:- The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in the intensity of light.
(But, extremely high intensity of light do not increase the rate of photosynthesis )
2. CO2 concentration
:- The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in the CO2 concentration.
3. Temperature
:- The maximum suitable temperature when photosynthesis occurs best is 35°C after which the rate falls.
:- The process of photosynthesis stops above 40°C as the enzymes are destroyed.
:- Low temperature also inhibits enzymatic activities and the rate of photosynthesis is reduced.
4. Water
:- It acts as a limiting factor in photosynthesis.
Note:- Stomata:- The tiny pores are microscopic or aperture which is present at the under surface of leaves is called Stomata. 

:- It is guided by special type of cells known as guard cell.

Function of Stomata

* Massive amount of gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through stomata.

* Transpiration takes place through the stomata. Large amount of water is lost in the form of water vapour through stomata is called transpiration.

Guard cells

:- Kidney shaped cells which cover single stomata are called guard cells. 

:- They contain chloroplast also.

Function of guard cells

:- They regulate opening and closing of stomata and also perform photosynthesis.

Opening and closing of Stomata

:- When the guard cells swell due to the entry of water the stomata opened. But when the guard cells shrink due to loss of water the Stomata gets closed.

Fig:-👇

💥Nutrition in Animals

1. Nutrition in Unicellular Organisms 

:- Holozoic mode of nutrition occur in Unicellular Organisms like Amoeba & Paramoecium. 

:- Flowchart to understand Nutrition in amoeba 👇👇

2. Nutrition in Multicellular Organisms

Nutrition in Human

:- Holozoic mode of nutrition occur in humans. 

Human digestive System

:- An organ system in humans which is specialised to carry out digestion process is called human           digestive system.

:- It consists of the Alimentary canal and digestive glands. 

Alimentary canal

:- It is a long tube extending from mouth to the anus.

:- It is about 9m long. 

:- It is differentiated into following parts:

                 👇

1. Mouth 

 :- It is a transverse slit bounded by movable lips.

 :- The lips serve to close and open mouth, holding the food in between and also help in speaking. 

2. Buccal cavity 

 :- It is also known as the mouth cavity or Oral cavity. 

 :- It is the first part of the Alimentary canal. 

 :- It consists of Tongue, Teeth & salivary glands. 

 :- Its main function is to receive food and start mechanical digestion by mastication of the food.

 a. Tongue 👅

  :-  It is a thick, large and mobile muscular organ covered by mucous membrane. 

  :- It contains taste buds which help to 

    taste the food. 

  Function of tongue 

  i. It moves food in the buccal cavity for mixing of saliva. 

  ii. It helps in swallowing food.

  iii. It keeps the mouth moist by the secretion of both mucus and water-like fluid. 

b. Teeth

 :- Teeth help in mechanical digestion. 

 :- Humans have diphyodont condition of teeth means two successive sets of teeth
    1. Deciduous or Milk teeth

    2. Permanent teeth. 

:- Mainly 32 permanent teeth are present in the human mouth.

Types of teeth

:- Four different types of teeth are present in our mouth. 

 a. Incisors(I-8) 

  :- Biting teeth, situated at the front of buccal cavity. 

 b. Caninnes(C-4)

  :- Tearing teeth. 

 c. Premolars(PM-8)

  :- Grinding teeth. 

 d3. Molars (M-12)

 :- Crushing teeth. 

C. Salivary glands

 :- These glands secrete saliva which contains a digestive enzyme called ptyalin or salivary amylase           which breaks down starch into Maltose and Dextrin. 

:- There are three pairs of salivary glands in humans. 

  i. The Parotid glands: They secret a               clear,  watery fluid rich in amylase. 

  ii. The sub-mandibular glands: They secret a more viscous fluid. 

  iii The sublingual glands: They secret saliva that is thick and stringy. 

Functions of saliva

a. Saliva moistens food particles that help in swallowing.

b. It binds the food particles together in the form of bolus for being swallowed as a mass.

c. It helps to cleanse the mouth and teeth, and the enzyme present in the saliva kills bacteria and thus,     it is antiseptic.

3. Pharynx

 :- The buccal cavity opens into a short narrow chamber called pharynx. 

 :- It connects the buccal cavity with the oesophagus. 

4. Oesophagus

 :- It is a tube-like structure about 25 CM in length extending from the pharynx to the stomach.

 :- Food passes through the oesophagus by a movement known as peristaltic movement. 

 :- There are no digestive glands but mucus glands are present.T

5. Stomach

 :- It is a j-shaped muscular bag like structure placed below the diaphragm of the left side of abdomen.

 :- It is divided into cardiac, fundic and 

   pyloric regions. 

 :- The opening of stomach into the intestine is called pylorus.  

 :- Gastric glands are present in the wall of the stomach. 

 :- These glands release gastric juice which contains mucus, HCl & a protein-digesting enzyme
    called pepsin. 

Function of HCl

:- Kill germs present in food. 

:- Gives an acidic medium for digestion. 

:- Activates pepsinogen to pepsin. 

6. Small Intestine

 :- It is the largest part of the alimentary canal.

:- It is about 7m long. 

:- It is a highly coiled structure. 

:- Complete digestion takes place in it. 

:- It is divided into three parts:

    a. Duodenum: It is the shortest and most fixed part of the small intestine and C- shaped
          structure. 

      :- Common bile duct opens into duodenum. 

     :- It receives secretion from pancreas & the liver. 

     b. Jejunum: It is the empty part of small intestine. 

     c. ILeum: It is the twisted part of small intestine. 

     :- It contains intestinal glands.  

     :- Its inner wall is provided with finger like projections called intestinal Villi.

                                       👇

   :- It increases the surface area for absorption of digestion. These are richly supplied with blood               vessels. 

💥 Digestive glands associated with

     Small Intestine:

1. Liver

 :- It is the largest gland in the human body and weighs about 1.5 kg. 

:- It is located in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity.      

:- it is divided into right and left lobes and is enclosed by a fibrous capsule.                                     
:- It produces RBCs in the embryo. 

:- It removes excess amino acids by the process of deamination. 

:- It secretes bile which is stored in a pear-shaped hollow structure known as gallbladder. 

 :- Bile juice plays an important role in the emulsification of fats and creating an alkaline medium
    which is essential for the action of pancreatic enzymes.

🔥 Emulsification: The process of breaking down of large fat molecules into small globules is called       emulsification. 

2. Pancreas

 :- It has leaf-like structure and located just below the stomach. 

 :- It has a dual nature of producing their secretion. 

 :- It plays a very important role in the digestion of food as well as in control & co-ordination. 

 :- Pancreatic juice aids in digestion. 

7. Large Intestine

 :- It absorbs water and electrolytes and forms and stores faeces.

 :- It has three parts: 

   a. The caecum: A small blind pouch at the junction of the small and large intestine.

    b. The colon: Absorption of water & electrolytes take place in it. 

    c. The rectum: It is the last part of the large intestine which opens outside through anus. 

👁️‍🗨️ Digestion of food in the human digestive system

  a. Digestion in Mouth

   :- Digestion begins from the mouth. 

   :- Saliva acts on starch and breaks into Maltose. 

 b. Digestion in stomach

  :- Partial digestion of food takes place in stomach. 

  :- HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin. 

  :- Then pepsin breaks down Proteins into Proteoses & Peptones.  

 [ Note: Renin acts on Casein of milk & breaks down into paracasein, which is further digested by        pepsin. 

c. Digestion in the intestine

 :- In small intestine food mixes with bile juice, pancreatic juices & intestinal juices. 

 💠 Action of bile

    :- It emulsifies fat molecules. 

    :- It changes the medium of food (acidic chyme to alkaline chyme)

💠 Action of pancreatic juice

  :- It contains Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Amylase & Lipase. 

🔹Trypsin: Acts on Proteins and converts them into polypeptides. 

🔹 Chymotrypsin: Acts on specific proteins and converts them to polypeptides.

🔹Amylase: Acts on starch and complex sugars & converts them to maltose. 

🔹Lipase: Acts on emulsified fats and converts them to fatty acids and glycerols.

💠 Action of intestinal juice

 :- It mainly contains Erepsin or peptidase, maltase, sucrase & lactase. 

🔹 Erepsin: Acts on peptides and convert them to amino acids. 

🔹Maltase: An intestinal amylase, which converts maltose into glucose. 

🔹Sucrase: Acts on cane sugar and converts it into glucose and fructose.

🔹 Lactase: Acts  on the milk sugar lactose and converts it into glucose and galactose. 

:- In this way food is completely digested and chyme gets converted into a liquid form in known as        chyle. 

******************************************


      LIFE PROCESSES -- III( RESPIRATION )

💥 Respiration
Definitions👇
1. The process of releasing energy from food is called Respiration.

2.The phenomenon in which energy released by the oxidation of glucose(food) for cellular use is
   called respiration.
➤Reaction:-

    C6H12O6  + 6O2 ➜ 6CO2 + 6H2O +ATP(Energy) ⇈
:- It is a biochemical process which initiated in cytoplasm and completed in mitochondria of the cell.

:- It occurs inside the cell only hence, known as Cellular respiration.

:- Energy releases in this process in the form of ATP  which is utilized to carry
     out biological functions that is essential for life processes.

Note:-

(i) Breathing:- The mechanism by which organism obtain oxygen (O2) from the air
     and  releases CO2 is called breathing.

➤Types of respiration
    1. Aerobic Respiration    2. Anaerobic Respiration

1.Aerobic Respiration

:-Respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration.

:- It takes place inside the mitochondria .

:- Most of the living organisms carry out aerobic respiration(by using  O2 of air).
:- Single glucose molecule produces 38 molecules of ATP during aerobic respiration.
:- Complete oxidation of glucose takes place in this process.
➤ Reaction:-
 Step - 1, Formation of  Pyruvate or Pyruvic acid from glucose by the process of

              glycolysis in the cytoplasm.
 :-  C6H12O6 ⟶ 2CH3COCOOH (pyruvate)
Step - 2, Formation of CO2 , H2O  and ATP( ENERGY ) from Pyruvate in mitochondria in the presence of O2.
*Reaction👇                        
       2CH3COCOOH ➞  2CO2 + 2H2O + 38 ATP⇈

Note:- 
(i) Glycolysis - The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis.
(ii) Kreb's Cycle:- The stepwise cyclic process which is used to oxidize the pyruvate formed during
      the glycolytic breakdown of glucose into CO2  and H20 is called Kreb's cycle.

2.Anaerobic Respiration:-

:- The respiration which takes place without O2 is called anaerobic respiration.

 :- It takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.

 ➤ Reaction:-

  (i) STEP -1:-  By the process of glycolysis glucose forms pyruvate.

                          C6H12O6 ➞ CH3COCOOH 

(ii) STEP - 2:-  Formation of ethanol as an end product, in the cytoplasm.

                        CH3COCOOH➞ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2 ATP ⇈

    OR, sometimes it forms Lactic acid.

            C6H12O6➞ CH3COCOOH ➞ 2CH3CHOHCOOH + 2 ATP`

NOTE:-1 Anaerobic respiration in yeast during fermentation.

(i) CH3COCOOH ➞ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 +2 ATP

 2. Anaerobic respiration occurs sometimes in human muscles during vigorous physical

     exercise. (word flow reaction ) 

        Glucose ⟶ 2-Pyruvic acid ⟶ 2-Lactic acid + 2 ATP

  Respiration in Plants

:- Respiration in plants occurs through their different parts like, 

   (i) Through Roots - By root hairs     

 (ii) Through Stem - By lenticels  
         

                                                                                                   

 (iii) Through Leaves - By stomata
          



Respiration in Animals

:- Respiration or gaseous exchange in animals occurs through different parts of their body.

     like,

      (i) Unicellular Organisms ➝ Through cell membranes by diffusion.

      (ii) Earthworms ⟶ Through their moist skin.

      (iii) Insects ⟶ Through spiracles and tracheae.

      (iv) Fish  ⟶ Through gills.

➤RESPIRATION IN HUMANS

:-Respiration in humans involves two steps

 (i) Breathing:- A physical process of intake of air ( rich in O2 )and giving out of air (rich in CO2 ).

 (ii) Cellular Respiration:- A biological process in which glucose is oxidized to
       CO2 and water along with the exchange of gasses.

 ➜ Respiration in humans occurs through a set of organs which makes a system is called human respiratory system.
 ➽HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM                                   

   :- The human respiratory system consists of:-   
                    ➥Nostrils

                    ➥Pharynx 

                    ➥Tracheae

                    ➥ Bronchi

                    ➨ Lungs                               

       

  NOSTRIL & NASAL CAVITY 

:- The human resp. system begins from the nose .Our nose has two holes in it which are
      called nostrils.
:- The passage in the nose behind the nostrils is known as nasal cavity.
:- The air for respiration enters our body through the nostril and nasal cavity.
:- It is lined with fine hairs and mucus when air passes through the nasal cavity the dust particle and 
   other impurities present in it trapped by nasal hair and mucus so that clean air goes into the lungs. 
 PHARYNX 
 :- It is situated at the back of the mouth.
 :- It is common area to both digestive and respiratory tracts .
 :- It leads or opens into the larynx or voice box which further leads into trachea.
TRACHEAE
 :- It is a tube like structure that extends into the thoracic cavity and lies on the ventral side 
    of the esophagus.
 :- It is also known as the windpipe.
 :- Its wall is provided with incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

 :- Cartilaginous rings keep the trachea in dilated position and prevent it from collapsing.
 :- Its upper end has a voice box known as Larynx.
 BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES
 :-The passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs,known as bronchi.
 :- And the bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as bronchioles.  
 :- No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
 :- Each bronchiole terminates in a sac called alveolus or alveolar sac.
 :- Alveoli are the actual sites of respiratory exchange hence, they are known as the functional units              of lungs. 
 :-About 700 million alveoli present in the lungs.
 :- The gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli.
 LUNGS
 :- It is the primary organ of the respiratory system in
     humans. 
 :-  It is a pair of highly elastic, hollow bag-like structure.
 :- It is situated in the thoracic cavity along with the heart.
 :- It is divided into two parts i.e left and right lungs.
 :- It is covered by two membranes called pleural, the broad lower surface of lungs rest on the diaphragm.                                               

💠Mechanism of breathing

:- Breathing, also called ventilation of the lungs involves two steps- inhalation and exhalation.🌞 Inhalation

  :- The intake of fresh air from outside into the alveoli of the lungs is called inhalation.

 :- It is also known as inspiration.  :-  It occurs by contraction and expansion of lungs which is brought about the enlargement of thoracic cavity.
:- It involves the following steps-

🔹 Diaphragm straighten out. 

🔹Ribs are raised upward and outward by 

     the contraction of external intercostal 

     muscles and volume of chest cavity 

     increases.

🔹 The air drawn in brings in oxygen which diffuses into the alveolar air.

🌞 Exhalation

  :- The mechanism of breathing out of 

    carbon dioxide is called exhalation.
 :- During exhalation, muscle of the diaphragm relaxes.

:- The external intercostal muscles also relax with the result the thoracic cavity is reduced in size and lungs also contract.

:- Contraction of lungs increases the air pressure so that the fall hair moves out. 

💥 Transport of gases in human beings

  :- Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment which is present in the red blood corpuscles(RBC). 

  :- Hemoglobin has a very high affinity to oxygen while CO2 is more soluble in water than oxygen.

 🔹 Oxygen is transported in the blood in 

      the following ways:

  :- 97% in combined state with 

     haemoglobin called oxyhaemoglobin.

  :- Rest 3% dissolved in plasma.
🔹 Carbon dioxide is transported in the            blood in the following ways:     :- 5-7% as dissolved in plasma. 

    :- 70% as sodium bicarbonate in plasma.

   :- 23% in combined state with                         haemoglobin called

  carbaminohaemoglobin. 

*********************************************************************************

➤LIFE PROCESSES - III                                                 (TRANSPORTATION )

🌞Transportation 

   :- The distribution of materials like food and oxygen to all parts of the body as well  as the removal        of body wastes is called transportation.

  :- It is performed by a set of organs known as a transport system.

➤Transportation in Human beings

:-Human beings have a specialized system which transport materials and fluids known as the circulatory system.

. In human beings, the circulatory system is divided into two system :

(i)  Blood Circulatory System

(ii) Lymphatic System

💠 Blood Circulatory System

  . It consists of:

  (i) Blood 

 (ii) Blood vessels

 (iii) Heart
💥Blood

 :-It is found in the heart and blood vessels like arteries veins and capillaries.

:- It is the fluid connective tissue and also called River of Life.

:- An average human being has about 5.5 litres of blood in his body.

:-It carries oxygen, digested food, hormones and enzymes to all parts of the body.

:- It is red in colour and salty in taste.

:- Its pH value is 7.

:-It is made up of two components:-
  (i)  Plasma: 50 - 60 %
  (ii) Cellular Elements: 40 - 50 %

1. Plasma
  :- It is a straw-coloured aqua solution.
  :-It contains:-

                 (i) Water - 90 to 92%
                 (ii) Inorganic Salts - 1 to 2% &
                 (iii) Organic compounds - 7 to 8%
[Note:- Inorganic Salts are Chlorides, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Sulphates, and
 Phosphates of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium etc.]

2. Cellular elements
 :-Three types of cellular elements are found in human blood.
     i. Red blood corpuscles or RBCs
    ii. White blood corpuscles or WBCs
   iii. Platelets
     
 Red Blood corpuscles( RBCs )

:- It is also known as erythrocytes.               :-It is enucleated disc-like structure and very small in size.
:- It is produced in the red bone marrow of bones and the average lifespan is

about 100 - 120 days.

:- It is red in colour due to the presence of a pigment that is known as haemoglobin.

:- It transports oxygen from the lungs to all tissues of the body and return carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
                                                                       

[Note:- The old and worn out RBCs are destroyed in the spleen and liver.  ➥ Spleen - Blood bank of the body.]

 💥White Blood Corpuscles ( WBCs )

:- It is also known as leukocytes and soldiers of the body(protect against diseases and infections). 

:- Cells are rounded to irregular shaped and capable of Amoeboid movement.
:- It is colourless liquid due to lack of haemoglobin.      

:- Its life span is about 13 - 20 days.
:- It is of two types:-

 1.Granulocytes (Contain granules in their       cytoplasm )

 :- It is also of three types.

 i. Neutrophil - 60- 70%

  . It helps in phagocytosis.       

 ii. Basophils - 0.5- 1.0%

 . It secretes Histamine, Serotonin, Heparin and involved in inflammatory reactions. 
iii. Eosinophils - 2- 4%

 . Produces antitoxins to fight the effect of histamines in allergic reactions and destroys certain parasitic worms.
2. Agranulocytes ( lacking granules in 

    their cytoplasm).

🔹It is also of 2 types:-

i. lymphocytes: 20- 25%

 . B & T lymphocytes are responsible for

   immune response of the body.

ii. Monocytes: 3- 8% 

. It helps in phagocytosis.
. WBCs help in engulfing solid substances 

  like bacteria and other microbes.
. It is responsible for immunity and helps 

  in the formation of antibodies.

💥Blood Platelets

:- They are colourless oval or round cells.            

▪️It plays an important role in blood 

     clotting.               

▪️It is also enucleated.
▪️It releases a chemical that

     is thromboplastin which initiates the 

     process of clotting of blood in a cut or 

     wound.

🌞Functions of Blood

➧ Some important functions of blood are:-
1.Transports nutrients, respiratory gases       & waste products.
2. Transports body secretions and regulates body temperature.           

3. Defence against infection and maintenance of  PH.

4. Helps in maintaining water balance and formation of clots to prevent blood loss.

Blood Vessels
. In human beings, three types of blood vessels are present.

(i)  Arteries

    These vessels carry blood from the

    heart to various organs of the body. 

    The walls of the arteries are thick and 

    muscular. 

(ii)  Veins

      They collect the blood from different 

      parts of the body and pour it into the 

      heart. 

(iii) Capillaries

       These are the smallest blood vessels and one-cell thick. 

The major differences between various blood vessels have been given in the table.          👇👇

💠Heart- The pumping Organ

  🔹Size - 5 × 3.5 inches

  🔹Colour - Pink

  🔹Shape - Conical

  🔹Weight - abt. 300 gm. 

🔹 It is a muscular cone-shaped organ about the size of a clenched fist of the same person.

🔹 It is located in the upper body (chest area) between the lungs. 

🔹Our heart produces two different sound

   1.The lubb sound

      It is caused by the vibrations set upon 

      by the closure of trycuspid and 

      bicuspid valves. 

      It is low pitched, not very loud and of a 

      long duration. 

   2.The dubb sound

      It is caused by the closure of the 

      semilunar valves.   

      It is high-pitched, louder and shorter 

      in duration. 

External structure of the Heart

. The heart is a four-chambered organ divided 

  by Septum into two halves,

(i) The right half

 . It consists of two chambers right auricle or atrium and right ventricles.

(ii) The left half 

. It consists of Left auricle and left ventricle.     

. Internal Structure of Heart                

 . Internally heart is divided into four chambers:                                         

 (i)  Two auricles &  (ii) Two Ventricles  

   

➤ Auricles 

. These are thin-walled chambers and separated by an inter-auricular septum.

. Number - 2,( Left and Right auricles/atrium).

. It is also known as atria.

. These are the receiving chambers of the  heart which means they receive blood

 (oxygenated blood-left -A, deoxygenated blood- right -A) from the main veins.

. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle and similarly, the right atrium 

  is connected to the right ventricle through Valves.

 ➤ Ventricles

 . These are thick-walled chambers which are separated by an inter-ventricular septum.

 . The right and left ventricles is known as the discharging chamber of the heart. 

➤ The Blood Vessels ( inside the heart )

 .They are also known as the great blood vessels of the heart.

 . It includes: 

* Superior (Anterior ) Vena cava

* Inferior (Posterior ) Vena cava

* Pulmonary Artery  and

* Systemic Aorta

➤ Valves inside the Heart

 .There are mainly four valves in the heart which control the flow of blood within the heart.

 . It includes:

i. The Bicuspid Valve

. It guards the opening of the left auricle into the left ventricle.

. it is also known as Mitral valve.

ii. The Tricuspid Valve

 . It guards the right auricle-ventricular aperture.
iii. Pulmonary Valves

 . They are present at the base of aortic and pulmonary arches.

 . These valves check the backflow of 

   blood into the ventricles .
iv. Aortic Semilunar Valve

 . It is present at the point of origin of the aorta from the left ventricle.

♦️Working of Heart

🔹The heart works like a pump.

🔹Blood from the body travels into the right atrium, moves into the right ventricle, and it is finally 

   pushed into the lungs by the pulmonary arteries.

🔹The blood then picks of oxygen and travels back to the heart into the left atrium through the 

    pulmonary veins.

🔹The blood then travels through the left atrium to the left ventricle and exits to the body through the 

    aorta. 

➤ Circulation of Blood through the Heart

💠Double Circulation

.The flow of blood twice through the heart in each circuit is called Double Circulation.

. It occurs in human beings and animals. 

(i). Systemic Circulation

    Circulation of blood between the heart and body organs (except lungs) is called systemic circulation.

  . Oxygenated blood from lungs--->heart-->

   Systemic arteries---> body parts---> 

   systemic veins-----> Heart

(ii). Pulmonary circulation

     Circulation of blood between the heart and the lungs is called the pulmonary circulation.

     . Deoxygenated blood from body----> 

     heart---> pulmonary arteries ---> lungs 

     parts ---> pulmonary veins---> heart 

The major differences between Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation👇👇👇

The major differences between Single and Double Circulation

                              👇👇👇

💠Cardiac Cycle  

.The sequence of events which take place during the completion of one heartbeat, is called Cardiac cycle. 

. It involves repeated contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle.

. A contraction is termed as systole and relaxation is termed diastole.

. One complete cardiac cycle consist of of one systole and one diastole.

. It lasts for 0.8 seconds. 

💠 Heart beat

. One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heartbeat. 

. Avg. number of heartbeat of a person at rest is 70 - 72 per minute. 

. The heart beats faster during and after an exercise because the body needs more energy under these conditions.

Pulse

. The expansion of an artery each time the blood is forced into it, is called pulse.

. The pulse rate of an adult person while resting is 70- 72 per minute.

. The pulse is traditionally taken above the wrist

ECG

. It is a machine that records the impulses or electrical electrical signals sent out by the pacemaker just before every beat. 

. The recorded impulses or Signal is drawn on paper is known as ECG- electrocardiograph. 

♦️ Pacemaker

 . A pacemaker is a small device that's placed in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms. 

. This device uses electrical  to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate.

. Pacemakers are used to treat arrhythmias (ah-RITH-me-ahs). Arrhythmias are problems with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat.

 . It is influenced by nerves, hormones, CO2 and O2 content of blood, heat etc.  

💠Blood pressure

.The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by the heart is called blood pressure.

. It is always expressed in the form of two values:

(i). Systolic pressure 

     The maximum pressure at which the 

     blood leaves the heart through the 

     main artery(aorta) during contraction 

     phase, is called the Systolic pressure.

     It's avg. value is about 120 mm Hg. 

(ii).Diastolic pressure

   The minimum pressure in the arteries 

   during the relaxation phase of heart is 

   called diastolic pressure. 

   It's avg. value is about 80 mm Hg.

. Blood pressure usually written as 120/80

. The blood pressure values vary from person to person and from time to time.  

. A young person may have blood pressure of 110/75. 

. But at the age of 60 years it could be 145/90. 

. The high blood pressure is

   called hypertension. 

. Blood pressure is measured by using an instrument called sphygmomanometer. 

II. Lymphatic System

 . A system of tiny tubes that are lymph vessels and lymph nodes in the human body which transport lymph from the body tissues to the blood circulatory system is called lymphatic System. 

. It consists of lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphatic organs. 

. It is an open circulatory system. 

. Lymph flows in one direction only i.e from tissues to heart. 

.  Lymph is yellow fluid which contains blood palsma , WBC and some proteins. 

Functions of lymph

 . It takes of excess fluid that has diffused out from the blood capillaries and puts it into blood.

. It has lymphocytes which fight against germs and bacteria and produce antibodies to fight against infections.

. It absorbs and carries digested fats from the intestinal villi.

💠 Transportation in plants

 . Transportation of materials in plants

Transportation of materials in plants occurs through  specialized conducting tissues which are

    (i) Xylem &
    (ii) Phloem                                               

(i) Xylem
. It is a conducting tissue in plants which 

  conducts water and Minerals from root to

  the leaves.
. It shows unidirectional movement. 

◼️ Transport of water and minerals

 ♦️Ascent of Sap

    The upward movement of water and 

     minerals is called ascent of sap.

🔹 Tracheids and vessels, which are non 

     living cells of xylem, transport water 

    picked up by root hairs from soil to the 

    leaves.

🔹In flowering plants xylem vessels and 

    tracheids conduct water and minerals 

    upwardly.

🔹 In non-flowering plants vessels are absent, tracheids are the only conducting cells.

🔹 Main forces which play a role in ascent of sap are:

◼️ Root pressure

      The pressure with which the water is 

      pushed up by the xylem of the roots is

      called the root pressure.

     It is developed in the xylem due to 

     metabolic activity of the root cells.  

🔳 Transpiration pull and Cohesion-                  tension theory

▪️It was given/proposed by Henry Dixon

     and Jolly in 1894 to explain ascent of 

     sap. 

▪️This theory states: 

     During day period cohesion force 

     (attractive force between water 

     molecules) and transpiration pull help 

     in the upward movement of sap from 

     roots to leaves.

◼️ Transpiration

▪️The loss of water in the form of water 

     vapours from the aerial part of a plant 

     is called transpiration.

▪️ It mainly occurs through stomata 

     (about 80% to 90%) but it may also                occur through cuticle(9%) and                      lenticels(1%).

◼️ Functions of Transpiration

▪️ It helps in absorption and upward 

      movement of water.

▪️ It helps in temperature regulation. The 

     plants are protected from the burning 

     due to transpiration. Evaporation of 

     water produces cooling effect.

🔳 Transportation of food and other

      substances

◾Translocation

▪️The transport of food from leaves to 

     different parts of the plant is called 

     translocation.

▪️sugar, amino acid and other substances

    are translocated from site of synthesis 

  to the site of storage through the phloem.

  Phloem 

. It is also a conducting tissue which

  conducts food materials from leaves to

  the other part of the plants.

. It shows multi-directional movement.

▪️Phloem tissue consists of four 

     components:

🔹Sieve tubes

🔹Sieve cell

🔹Companion cells

🔹Phloem parenchyma

🔹Phloem fibers. 

▪️Translocation of food takes place in the

     sieve tubes with the help of adjacent 

     companion cells.

🔳 Mechanism of Translocation

🔹Sugar made in leaves are loaded into 

    the sieve tubes of phloem by using 

    energy from ATP. It increases the

   osmotic pressure of the sieve tubes.

🔹Water now enters into sieve tubes 

    containing sugar by the process of 

    osmosis.

🔹Soluble materials is then transferred 

    from phloem tissues to other tissues 

    which have less pressure than in the 

    phloem. This, according to plants 

    requirement, the material is translocated from higher osmotic pressure to the lower 

   osmotic pressure areas. 

◾Osmotic pressure

 ▪️The force that a dissolved substances 

    exerts on a semipermeable membrane 

    through which it cannot penetrate when 

    separated by it from pure solvent is              called osmotic pressure. 

[Note: On the basis of requirement of ATP Transportation can be of two types

 1. Active Transport

 2. Passive Transport

 1. Active Transport

 A biological process in which molecules move against the concentration gradient and require chemical energy to move biochemical compounds from a lower region to the high region is called active transport.                                                     ◾ This process uses ATP – Adenosine triphosphate to pump molecules through a concentration gradient.  

 2. Passive Transport

▪️ A biological process, in which there is no need for any energy for transporting the molecules, as the biochemicals move from higher to the lower concentration is called passive transport.                                        ▪️                     All the easy soluble particles are transported through passive transport.

▪️Difference Between Active And Passive Transport

🔹Following are the important difference         between active and passive transport: 

Active Transport	Passive Transport
It requires cellular energy.	Do not require cellular energy.
It circulates from an area of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.	It circulates from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Required in the transportation of all the molecules such as proteins, large cells, complex sugars, ions, etc.	Required in the transportation all the soluble molecules which include oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, lipids, sex hormones, monosaccharides, etc.
It transports various molecules in the cell.	It is involved in the maintenance of the equilibrium level inside the cell.
Active transport is a dynamic process.	Passive Transport is a physical process.
It is highly selective.	It is partly non-selective
Active transport is a rapid process.	Passive transport is a comparatively slow process.
Transpires in one direction.	Transpires bidirectionally.
Active transportation is influenced by temperature.	Passive transportation is not influenced by temperature.
In Active transport carrier proteins are required	In passive transport, carrier proteins are not required
This process reduces or halts as the oxygen content level is reduced.	This process is not affected by the level of oxygen content.
Metabolic inhibitors can influence and stop the active transport.	Passive transportation is not influenced by metabolic inhibitors.
Different types of Active Transport are – Exocytosis, endocytosis,  sodium-potassium pump.	Different types of Passive Transport are – Osmosis, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion.

*****************************************

Life Processes- III

                      (Excretion) 

Excretion 

🔹The process of removal of toxic wastes

     from the body of an organism is called

     excretion.
🔹It occurs in plants and animals both. 

Nature of Excretory wastes
1.Respiratory wastes products
     E.g - Co2 & H2O
2. Nitrogenous Wastes 
     E.g- Ammonia , Urea  & Uric acid.

On the basis of excreting nitrogenous wastes animals are classified into following groups:

1. Ammonotelic Organisms

🔹Those Organisms which excrete 

     nitrogenous wastes as ammonia are 

     called ammonotelic Organisms. 

🔹E.g. Aquatic animals( like- fishes, 

     Octopus Sepia, etc). 

2. Ureotelic Organisms

🔹Those organisms which excrete 

     nitrogenous wastes as Urea are called 

     ureotelic Organisms. 

🔹E.g. Sharks, frogs, mammals. 

3. Uricotelic Organisms

🔹Those organisms which excrete 

     nitrogenous wastes as Uric acid are

     called uricotelic organisms. 

🔹E.g. Reptiles, birds and insects. 

 

Excretion in Animals

:- Different animals have different organs 
  for excretion, like
a. Unicellular organisms 
    i. Amoeba :- Through Contractile Vacuole      & diffusion.
   ii. Protozoans , Sponges and
     Coelenterates :- Through diffusion.
b. Flatworms :- Through Flame cells.
c. Earthworms - Through Nephridia

d. Insects :- Through Malpighian tubules.
e. Humans :- Through Kidneys ( nephron).

                              Or

Excretion in Plants

🔹In plants no definite excretory system

    or organ is present for removal of 

    wastes.

🔹The excretory products which are 

     easily diffusible are removed by way of 

     diffusion or osmosis.

🔹The main waste products produced by

     plants are carbon dioxide, water vapour 

     and oxygen.

Like:

🔹It occurs through - Stomata(leaves),   

     Lenticel(Stems ).

🔹Plants also store some of the waste

     products in their body ( Collected in

     leaves , bark and fruits).
🔹The plants get rid of these wastes by 

     shedding of leaves ,peeling of bark & 

     falling of fruits.

🔹Aquatic plants loose most of their 

    metabolic wastes by direct diffusion 

    into water surrounding them.
Excretory organs in Humans
▪️Excretory organs in humans can be 

    divided into two parts:

1. Primary/Mazor excretory organs

🔹In humans primary excretory organ is

    kidney(which eliminate the principal 

    metabolic waste like nitrogenous 

    materials). 

2. Accessory/Additional excretory organs

🔹Some other organs also remove certain 

    metabolic wastes besides their normal

    functions deform additional excretory 

    organs like:

🔘 Skin : it contains sweat and sebaceous

     glands. 

▪️Sweat glands excrete sweat which 

     consists of of water(99.5%),traces of 

     lactic acid, amino acids, urea and salt.

▪️Sebaceous glands secret oil or sebum 

     for lubricating hair. It has wax sterols 

     and other lipids.

🔘 Liver : (i) extra amino acids are                    deaminated and toxic ammonia is 

      converted into less harmful urea in 

      liver.

 (ii) Liver degrades hemoglobin or worn

      out erythrocytes into bilirubin and

      biliverdin( bile pigments) for 

      elimination.

 (iii) It passes cholesterol, lecithin,                       excess vitamins, drugs and toxic 

       substances into bile for elimination.

🔘 Lungs : They eliminate carbon dioxide 

      and some aromatic substances.

🔘 Large Intestine : It excretes heavy 

      metals and toxins into faecal matter.

🔘 Salivary Glands : Small quantities of 

      toxins, excess drugs and salts are 

      excreted by salivary glands.

➤ Excretion in Human Beings

🔹Excretion in humans carried out by a          set of organs known as excretory 

    system.

Human excretory system

🔹It consists of:

                         * Kidneys - 2(a pair )
                         * Ureters - 2 ( a pair )
                         * Urinary bladder - 1 and
                         * Urethra

Kidneys
The main excretory organs of our body         are kidneys. 

Shape - Bean shaped
Number - 02
Weight - 125- 170 gms. 

Colour - Dark red

Size- 10 cm length, 5 cm breadth, 3 cm thickness. 

Position - Located laterally either sides of vertebral column. 

External structure

🔹It is surrounded and covered by a tough 

    fibrous capsule of connective tissues

    which is called renal capsule.

🔹It's lateral surfaces are convex while 

     medial surfaces are concave. 

Internal structure

Internally it is divided into two parts:

◾Cortex(Outer)

◾Medulla (inner)-

🔹Renal Pelvis( innermost chamber)

🔹On the concave median margin of each

     kidney there is a notch called 

     hilum which leads into funnel shaped 

     space called renal pelvis.

🔹The pelvis is surrounded by an outer 

     layer of tissue called renal cortex and 

     an inner layer of tissue called the renal

     medulla.

💠 Functions of Kidneys

 ▪️Excretion of waste products. 

 ▪️Removal of toxic wastes. 

 ▪️Maintains water/osmotic balance in 

     the blood (Osmoregulation). 

 ▪️Elimination of excess vitamins, drugs 

     etc. 

🔘 Nephron 

 ▪️The structural and functional unit of 

      kidney is called Nephron. 

 ▪️Each kidney contains about 1 million 

      Nephrons. 

 ▪️Each nephron is about 3 cm long. 

 ▪️It is differentiated into 4 regions having

      different anatomical features and 

      physiological roles.

 1. Bowman's capsule

 2. Proximal convulated tubule (PCT)

 3. Loop of Henle

 4. Distal convulated tubule (DCT)

☮️ Bowman's Capsule

  ▪️It is a large double walled cup shaped structure. 

 ▪️It lies in the renal cortex. 

 ▪️It contains a tuft of capillaries called glomerulus and the outer wall is continuous with the rest of the nephron. 

  ▪️The Bowman's capsule and the glomerulus together constitutes the renal corpusscle or malpighian body. 

🅱️ PCT

  ▪️It starts from the back of the Bowman's capsule and it is highly convoluted. 

  ▪️It lies in the renal cortex. 

  ▪️The  wall consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells bearing a lot of microvilli on the surface i.e brush bordered cuboidal Epithelium. 

🅾️ Loop of Henle

   ▪️It is a In shaped segment of the nephron located in the renal Medulla. 

  ▪️It consists of two straight parallel limbs, a descending limb which is a continuation of the PCT and enters into the renal medulla and an ascending limb which re-enters the renal cortex and joins the DCT. 

☮️ DCT or Distal Convoluted Tubule

 ▪️It is greatly twisted like the PCT and lies in the renal cortex. 

 ▪️The terminal relatively short part of the DCT is called the Collecting tubule. 

 ▪️It opens into the Collecting tubule. 

 ▪️The collecting ducts receive the collecting tubules of several nephrons. 

 ▪️All the collecting ducts then open into pelvis which leads into ureter.

💠Physiology of Excretion

 ▪  Kidney filter all of the blood that comes from the heart forming urine.

▪️ The process of clearing happens in the nephron present in the kidneys and is completed in three stages:

1. Ultrafiltration

2. Reabsorption

3. Tubular secretion

1. Ultrafiltration

 ▪️ The renal artery branches from the dorsal aorta and enters the kidneys by further dividing into numerous small vessels called arterioles or afferent arterioles. 

▪️ The afferent arterioles bring blood into the bowman's capsule ,  further branches into the fine Capillaries which forms a knot of capillaries called glomerulus. 

▪️These glomerular Capillaries unite to form efferent arteriole. 

▪️ The diameter of glomerular capillary is much less than diameter of the afferent arteriole. Also the diameter of outgoing efferent arteriole is narrow than the afferent arteriole.

▪️As a result, the blood flows through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule. 

▪️Along with the plasma, organic and inorganic molecules of low molecular weight such as urea, glucose amino acids and salts also pass into the renal tubule. 

▪️Plasma proteins and formed elements of the blood remain in the glomerulus. Formed elements are RBC WBC and platelets.

2. Reabsorption

 ▪️ During reabsorption, substances considered necessary in the filtrate are reabsorbed by renal tubules which then travel back into the bloodstream.

▪️Maximum reabsorption occurs in PCT because of the the presence of microvilli and abundant mitochondria.

3. Tubular secretion

 ▪️ Passage of unwanted substances out of the capillaries directly into the renal tubules is called as tubular secretion.

▪️ It occurs mostly in distal convoluted tubules. 

💠 Osmoregulation

 ▪️The process of maintaining the right amount of water and proper ionic balance in the body is called osmoregulation.

 ▪️ The hormones that regulate the function of kidney are ADH( anti-diuretic hormone) and aldosterone. 

🔘 Action of ADH on Kidney

▪️ADH is also known as  vassopressin.

 ▪️It is released by the pituitary gland and acts on DCT, collecting tubule and Collecting duct. 

▪️Here is the flowchart to understand formation of Urine in

both Summer and Winter.

                      👇

🔆 Artificial Kidney or Hemodialysis

 ▪️Kidneys are vital organs for 

      survival. 

▪️Several factors like infections, injury or restricted blood flow to Kidneys reduce the activity of Kidneys. As a result, waste products remain in the blood. When blood is not filtered, survival becomes difficult, so it is filtered through an artificial kidney and process is called dialysis.

▪️ A machine that uses dialysis to remove impurities and waste products from the bloodstream before returning the blood to the patient's body is called hemodialyzer.

                     

💠Do follow & Give your valuable 

    feedback 💠

 

Thanks You!

Prince Sir

🔆Video lactures for all these 👆 topics will be added here👇